diff --git a/.basedpyright/baseline.json b/.basedpyright/baseline.json
index 14bf1024e..79d35235e 100644
--- a/.basedpyright/baseline.json
+++ b/.basedpyright/baseline.json
@@ -1,966 +1,502 @@
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+      },
+      {
+        "code": "reportArgumentType",
+        "range": {
+          "startColumn": 32,
+          "endColumn": 39,
+          "lineCount": 1
+        }
+      },
+      {
+        "code": "reportCallIssue",
+        "range": {
+          "startColumn": 25,
+          "endColumn": 46,
+          "lineCount": 1
+        }
+      },
+      {
+        "code": "reportArgumentType",
+        "range": {
+          "startColumn": 30,
+          "endColumn": 39,
+          "lineCount": 1
+        }
+      }
+    ],
+    "./git/db.py": [
+      {
+        "code": "reportIncompatibleMethodOverride",
+        "range": {
+          "startColumn": 8,
+          "endColumn": 12,
+          "lineCount": 1
+        }
+      },
+      {
+        "code": "reportIncompatibleMethodOverride",
+        "range": {
+          "startColumn": 8,
+          "endColumn": 14,
+          "lineCount": 1
+        }
+      }
+    ],
+    "./git/index/base.py": [
+      {
+        "code": "reportArgumentType",
+        "range": {
+          "startColumn": 30,
+          "endColumn": 36,
+          "lineCount": 1
+        }
+      },
+      {
+        "code": "reportArgumentType",
+        "range": {
+          "startColumn": 28,
+          "endColumn": 34,
+          "lineCount": 1
+        }
+      },
+      {
+        "code": "reportAssignmentType",
+        "range": {
+          "startColumn": 38,
+          "endColumn": 76,
+          "lineCount": 1
+        }
+      },
+      {
+        "code": "reportArgumentType",
+        "range": {
+          "startColumn": 51,
+          "endColumn": 57,
+          "lineCount": 1
+        }
+      },
+      {
+        "code": "reportArgumentType",
+        "range": {
+          "startColumn": 55,
+          "endColumn": 61,
+          "lineCount": 1
+        }
+      },
+      {
+        "code": "reportIncompatibleMethodOverride",
+        "range": {
+          "startColumn": 8,
+          "endColumn": 12,
+          "lineCount": 1
+        }
+      },
+      {
+        "code": "reportAssignmentType",
+        "range": {
+          "startColumn": 20,
+          "endColumn": 46,
+          "lineCount": 1
+        }
+      }
+    ],
+    "./git/objects/blob.py": [
+      {
+        "code": "reportIncompatibleVariableOverride",
+        "range": {
+          "startColumn": 4,
+          "endColumn": 8,
+          "lineCount": 1
+        }
+      }
+    ],
+    "./git/objects/commit.py": [
+      {
+        "code": "reportIncompatibleVariableOverride",
+        "range": {
+          "startColumn": 4,
+          "endColumn": 8,
+          "lineCount": 1
+        }
+      },
+      {
+        "code": "reportIncompatibleMethodOverride",
+        "range": {
+          "startColumn": 8,
+          "endColumn": 31,
+          "lineCount": 1
+        }
+      },
+      {
+        "code": "reportArgumentType",
+        "range": {
+          "startColumn": 20,
+          "endColumn": 33,
+          "lineCount": 1
+        }
+      },
+      {
+        "code": "reportArgumentType",
+        "range": {
+          "startColumn": 20,
+          "endColumn": 30,
+          "lineCount": 1
+        }
+      }
+    ],
+    "./git/objects/submodule/base.py": [
+      {
+        "code": "reportAttributeAccessIssue",
+        "range": {
+          "startColumn": 19,
+          "endColumn": 24,
+          "lineCount": 1
+        }
+      },
+      {
+        "code": "reportAttributeAccessIssue",
+        "range": {
+          "startColumn": 19,
+          "endColumn": 24,
+          "lineCount": 1
+        }
+      },
+      {
+        "code": "reportReturnType",
+        "range": {
+          "startColumn": 23,
+          "endColumn": 25,
+          "lineCount": 1
+        }
+      },
+      {
+        "code": "reportReturnType",
+        "range": {
+          "startColumn": 23,
+          "endColumn": 25,
+          "lineCount": 1
+        }
+      },
+      {
+        "code": "reportArgumentType",
+        "range": {
+          "startColumn": 52,
+          "endColumn": 84,
+          "lineCount": 1
+        }
+      }
+    ],
+    "./git/objects/tag.py": [
+      {
+        "code": "reportIncompatibleVariableOverride",
+        "range": {
+          "startColumn": 4,
+          "endColumn": 8,
+          "lineCount": 1
+        }
+      }
+    ],
+    "./git/objects/tree.py": [
+      {
+        "code": "reportIncompatibleVariableOverride",
+        "range": {
+          "startColumn": 4,
+          "endColumn": 8,
+          "lineCount": 1
+        }
+      },
+      {
+        "code": "reportIncompatibleMethodOverride",
+        "range": {
+          "startColumn": 8,
+          "endColumn": 31,
+          "lineCount": 1
+        }
+      },
+      {
+        "code": "reportReturnType",
+        "range": {
+          "startColumn": 19,
+          "endColumn": 83,
+          "lineCount": 1
+        }
+      },
+      {
+        "code": "reportReturnType",
+        "range": {
+          "startColumn": 15,
+          "endColumn": 54,
+          "lineCount": 1
+        }
+      }
+    ],
+    "./git/objects/util.py": [
+      {
+        "code": "reportAssignmentType",
+        "range": {
+          "startColumn": 23,
+          "endColumn": 34,
+          "lineCount": 1
+        }
+      },
+      {
+        "code": "reportReturnType",
+        "range": {
+          "startColumn": 22,
+          "endColumn": 26,
+          "lineCount": 1
+        }
+      },
+      {
+        "code": "reportArgumentType",
+        "range": {
+          "startColumn": 30,
+          "endColumn": 34,
+          "lineCount": 1
+        }
+      },
+      {
+        "code": "reportReturnType",
+        "range": {
+          "startColumn": 15,
+          "endColumn": 54,
+          "lineCount": 1
+        }
+      }
+    ],
+    "./git/refs/log.py": [
+      {
+        "code": "reportArgumentType",
+        "range": {
+          "startColumn": 30,
+          "endColumn": 34,
+          "lineCount": 1
+        }
+      },
+      {
+        "code": "reportAttributeAccessIssue",
+        "range": {
+          "startColumn": 17,
+          "endColumn": 22,
+          "lineCount": 1
+        }
+      },
+      {
+        "code": "reportArgumentType",
+        "range": {
+          "startColumn": 28,
+          "endColumn": 30,
+          "lineCount": 1
+        }
+      }
+    ],
+    "./git/refs/reference.py": [
+      {
+        "code": "reportIncompatibleVariableOverride",
+        "range": {
+          "startColumn": 13,
+          "endColumn": 17,
+          "lineCount": 1
+        }
+      }
+    ],
+    "./git/refs/symbolic.py": [
+      {
+        "code": "reportAttributeAccessIssue",
+        "range": {
+          "startColumn": 15,
+          "endColumn": 20,
+          "lineCount": 1
+        }
+      }
+    ],
+    "./git/refs/tag.py": [
+      {
+        "code": "reportIncompatibleMethodOverride",
+        "range": {
+          "startColumn": 8,
+          "endColumn": 14,
+          "lineCount": 1
+        }
+      },
+      {
+        "code": "reportIncompatibleMethodOverride",
+        "range": {
+          "startColumn": 8,
+          "endColumn": 14,
+          "lineCount": 1
+        }
+      }
+    ],
+    "./git/remote.py": [
+      {
+        "code": "reportAttributeAccessIssue",
+        "range": {
+          "startColumn": 26,
+          "endColumn": 38,
+          "lineCount": 1
+        }
+      },
+      {
+        "code": "reportAttributeAccessIssue",
+        "range": {
+          "startColumn": 26,
+          "endColumn": 38,
+          "lineCount": 1
+        }
+      },
+      {
+        "code": "reportAttributeAccessIssue",
+        "range": {
+          "startColumn": 26,
+          "endColumn": 38,
+          "lineCount": 1
+        }
+      },
+      {
+        "code": "reportAttributeAccessIssue",
+        "range": {
+          "startColumn": 26,
+          "endColumn": 38,
+          "lineCount": 1
+        }
+      }
+    ],
+    "./git/repo/base.py": [
+      {
+        "code": "reportReturnType",
+        "range": {
+          "startColumn": 15,
+          "endColumn": 46,
+          "lineCount": 1
+        }
+      },
+      {
+        "code": "reportReturnType",
+        "range": {
+          "startColumn": 15,
+          "endColumn": 51,
+          "lineCount": 1
+        }
+      },
+      {
+        "code": "reportReturnType",
+        "range": {
+          "startColumn": 15,
+          "endColumn": 28,
+          "lineCount": 1
+        }
+      },
+      {
+        "code": "reportTypedDictNotRequiredAccess",
+        "range": {
+          "startColumn": 21,
+          "endColumn": 31,
+          "lineCount": 1
+        }
+      },
+      {
+        "code": "reportTypedDictNotRequiredAccess",
+        "range": {
+          "startColumn": 34,
+          "endColumn": 44,
+          "lineCount": 1
+        }
+      },
+      {
+        "code": "reportTypedDictNotRequiredAccess",
+        "range": {
+          "startColumn": 65,
+          "endColumn": 79,
+          "lineCount": 1
+        }
+      },
+      {
+        "code": "reportTypedDictNotRequiredAccess",
+        "range": {
+          "startColumn": 82,
+          "endColumn": 102,
+          "lineCount": 1
+        }
+      },
+      {
+        "code": "reportTypedDictNotRequiredAccess",
+        "range": {
+          "startColumn": 50,
+          "endColumn": 69,
+          "lineCount": 1
+        }
+      },
+      {
+        "code": "reportTypedDictNotRequiredAccess",
+        "range": {
+          "startColumn": 68,
+          "endColumn": 85,
+          "lineCount": 1
+        }
+      },
+      {
+        "code": "reportTypedDictNotRequiredAccess",
+        "range": {
+          "startColumn": 88,
+          "endColumn": 111,
+          "lineCount": 1
+        }
+      },
+      {
+        "code": "reportTypedDictNotRequiredAccess",
+        "range": {
+          "startColumn": 51,
+          "endColumn": 73,
+          "lineCount": 1
+        }
+      }
+    ],
+    "./git/repo/fun.py": [
+      {
+        "code": "reportReturnType",
+        "range": {
+          "startColumn": 11,
+          "endColumn": 20,
+          "lineCount": 1
+        }
+      }
+    ],
+    "./test/deprecation/test_basic.py": [
+      {
+        "code": "reportUnusedExpression",
+        "range": {
+          "startColumn": 12,
+          "endColumn": 62,
+          "lineCount": 1
+        }
+      }
+    ]
+  }
 }
diff --git a/git/cmd.py b/git/cmd.py
index 193dfd4f6..3d7446906 100644
--- a/git/cmd.py
+++ b/git/cmd.py
@@ -100,7 +100,7 @@
 
 
 def handle_process_output(
-    process: "Git.AutoInterrupt" | Popen,
+    process: Union["Git.AutoInterrupt", Popen],
     stdout_handler: Union[
         None,
         Callable[[AnyStr], None],
@@ -395,9 +395,7 @@ def wait(self, stderr: Union[None, str, bytes] = b"") -> int:
         :raise git.exc.GitCommandError:
             If the return status is not 0.
         """
-        if stderr is None:
-            stderr_b = b""
-        stderr_b = force_bytes(data=stderr, encoding="utf-8")
+        stderr_b = force_bytes(data=stderr, encoding="utf-8") or b""
         status: Union[int, None]
         if self.proc is not None:
             status = self.proc.wait()
@@ -1180,52 +1178,112 @@ def version_info(self) -> Tuple[int, ...]:
     def execute(
         self,
         command: Union[str, Sequence[Any]],
+        istream: Union[None, int, BinaryIO] = None,
         *,
         as_process: Literal[True],
+        **subprocess_kwargs: Any,
     ) -> "AutoInterrupt": ...
 
     @overload
     def execute(
         self,
         command: Union[str, Sequence[Any]],
+        istream: Union[None, int, BinaryIO] = None,
         *,
         as_process: Literal[False] = False,
-        stdout_as_string: Literal[True],
-    ) -> Union[str, Tuple[int, str, str]]: ...
+        with_extended_output: Literal[False] = False,
+        stdout_as_string: Literal[True] = True,
+        with_stdout: Literal[True] = True,
+        **subprocess_kwargs: Any,
+    ) -> str: ...
 
     @overload
     def execute(
         self,
         command: Union[str, Sequence[Any]],
+        istream: Union[None, int, BinaryIO] = None,
         *,
         as_process: Literal[False] = False,
-        stdout_as_string: Literal[False] = False,
-    ) -> Union[bytes, Tuple[int, bytes, str]]: ...
+        with_extended_output: Literal[False] = False,
+        stdout_as_string: Literal[False],
+        universal_newlines: Literal[False] = False,
+        with_stdout: Literal[True] = True,
+        **subprocess_kwargs: Any,
+    ) -> bytes: ...
 
     @overload
     def execute(
         self,
         command: Union[str, Sequence[Any]],
+        istream: Union[None, int, BinaryIO] = None,
         *,
-        with_extended_output: Literal[False],
-        as_process: Literal[False],
-        stdout_as_string: Literal[True],
-    ) -> str: ...
+        as_process: Literal[False] = False,
+        with_extended_output: Literal[True],
+        stdout_as_string: Literal[True] = True,
+        with_stdout: Literal[True] = True,
+        **subprocess_kwargs: Any,
+    ) -> Tuple[int, str, str]: ...
 
     @overload
     def execute(
         self,
         command: Union[str, Sequence[Any]],
+        istream: Union[None, int, BinaryIO] = None,
         *,
-        with_extended_output: Literal[False],
-        as_process: Literal[False],
+        as_process: Literal[False] = False,
+        with_extended_output: Literal[True],
         stdout_as_string: Literal[False],
-    ) -> bytes: ...
+        universal_newlines: Literal[False] = False,
+        with_stdout: Literal[True] = True,
+        **subprocess_kwargs: Any,
+    ) -> Tuple[int, bytes, str]: ...
+
+    @overload
+    def execute(
+        self,
+        command: Union[str, Sequence[Any]],
+        istream: Union[None, int, BinaryIO] = None,
+        *,
+        as_process: Literal[False] = False,
+        with_extended_output: Literal[True],
+        **subprocess_kwargs: Any,
+    ) -> Tuple[int, Union[str, bytes, None], str]: ...
+
+    @overload
+    def execute(
+        self,
+        command: Union[str, Sequence[Any]],
+        istream: Union[None, int, BinaryIO] = None,
+        *,
+        as_process: Literal[False] = False,
+        with_extended_output: Literal[False] = False,
+        **subprocess_kwargs: Any,
+    ) -> Union[str, bytes, None]: ...
+
+    @overload
+    def execute(
+        self,
+        command: Union[str, Sequence[Any]],
+        istream: Union[None, int, BinaryIO] = None,
+        with_extended_output: bool = False,
+        with_exceptions: bool = True,
+        as_process: bool = False,
+        output_stream: Union[None, BinaryIO] = None,
+        stdout_as_string: bool = True,
+        kill_after_timeout: Union[None, float] = None,
+        with_stdout: bool = True,
+        universal_newlines: bool = False,
+        shell: Union[None, bool] = None,
+        env: Union[None, Mapping[str, str]] = None,
+        max_chunk_size: int = io.DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE,
+        strip_newline_in_stdout: bool = True,
+        **subprocess_kwargs: Any,
+    ) -> Union[None, str, bytes, Tuple[int, Union[str, bytes, None], str], AutoInterrupt]: ...
 
     def execute(
         self,
         command: Union[str, Sequence[Any]],
-        istream: Union[None, BinaryIO] = None,
+        istream: Union[None, int, BinaryIO] = None,
         with_extended_output: bool = False,
         with_exceptions: bool = True,
         as_process: bool = False,
@@ -1239,7 +1297,7 @@ def execute(
         max_chunk_size: int = io.DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE,
         strip_newline_in_stdout: bool = True,
         **subprocess_kwargs: Any,
-    ) -> Union[str, bytes, Tuple[int, Union[str, bytes], str], AutoInterrupt]:
+    ) -> Union[None, str, bytes, Tuple[int, Union[str, bytes, None], str], AutoInterrupt]:
         R"""Handle executing the command, and consume and return the returned
         information (stdout).
 
@@ -1303,9 +1361,9 @@ def execute(
             carefully considered, due to the following limitations:
 
             1. This feature is not supported at all on Windows.
-            2. Effectiveness may vary by operating system. ``ps --ppid`` is used to
-               enumerate child processes, which is available on most GNU/Linux systems
-               but not most others.
+            2. Enumerating child processes requires ``pgrep -P``, or a ``ps`` command
+               supporting the POSIX ``-A`` and ``-o`` options if ``pgrep`` is not
+               installed. Effectiveness may vary on systems without these commands.
             3. Deeper descendants do not receive signals, though they may sometimes
                terminate as a consequence of their parent processes being killed.
             4. `kill_after_timeout` uses ``SIGKILL``, which can have negative side
@@ -1465,14 +1523,24 @@ def kill_process(pid: int) -> None:
 
                 This callback implementation would be ineffective and unsafe on Windows.
                 """
-                p = Popen(["ps", "--ppid", str(pid)], stdout=PIPE)
                 child_pids = []
-                if p.stdout is not None:
-                    for line in p.stdout:
-                        if len(line.split()) > 0:
-                            local_pid = (line.split())[0]
-                            if local_pid.isdigit():
-                                child_pids.append(int(local_pid))
+                try:
+                    p = Popen(["pgrep", "-P", str(pid)], stdout=PIPE)
+                except FileNotFoundError:
+                    # POSIX ps does not support selecting by parent PID.
+                    with Popen(["ps", "-A", "-o", "pid=", "-o", "ppid="], stdout=PIPE) as p:
+                        if p.stdout is not None:
+                            for line in p.stdout:
+                                fields = line.split()
+                                if len(fields) == 2 and all(field.isdigit() for field in fields):
+                                    if int(fields[1]) == pid:
+                                        child_pids.append(int(fields[0]))
+                else:
+                    with p:
+                        if p.stdout is not None:
+                            for line in p.stdout:
+                                if line.strip().isdigit():
+                                    child_pids.append(int(line))
                 try:
                     os.kill(pid, signal.SIGKILL)
                     for child_pid in child_pids:
@@ -1493,7 +1561,7 @@ def make_timeout_error() -> Union[str, bytes]:
                 err = f'Timeout: the command "{" ".join(redacted_command)}" did not complete in {timeout:g} secs.'
                 return err if universal_newlines else err.encode(defenc)
 
-            def communicate() -> Tuple[AnyStr, AnyStr]:
+            def communicate() -> Tuple[Union[str, bytes, None], Union[str, bytes, None]]:
                 assert watchdog is not None
                 assert kill_check is not None
                 watchdog.start()
@@ -1513,8 +1581,8 @@ def communicate() -> Tuple[AnyStr, AnyStr]:
 
         # Wait for the process to return.
         status = 0
-        stdout_value: Union[str, bytes] = b""
-        stderr_value: Union[str, bytes] = b""
+        stdout_value: Union[str, bytes, None] = b""
+        stderr_value: Union[str, bytes, None] = b""
         newline = "\n" if universal_newlines else b"\n"
         try:
             if output_stream is None:
@@ -1556,7 +1624,7 @@ def communicate() -> Tuple[AnyStr, AnyStr]:
         if self.GIT_PYTHON_TRACE == "full":
             cmdstr = " ".join(redacted_command)
 
-            def as_text(stdout_value: Union[bytes, str]) -> str:
+            def as_text(stdout_value: Union[bytes, str, None]) -> str:
                 return not output_stream and safe_decode(stdout_value) or "<OUTPUT_STREAM>"
 
             # END as_text
@@ -1581,6 +1649,8 @@ def as_text(stdout_value: Union[bytes, str]) -> str:
         if isinstance(stdout_value, bytes) and stdout_as_string:  # Could also be output_stream.
             stdout_value = safe_decode(stdout_value)
 
+        # stderr is always captured through PIPE.
+        assert stderr_value is not None
         # Allow access to the command's status code.
         if with_extended_output:
             return (status, stdout_value, safe_decode(stderr_value))
@@ -1819,7 +1889,7 @@ def _parse_object_header(self, header_line: str) -> Tuple[str, str, int]:
             raise ValueError("Failed to parse header: %r" % header_line)
         return (tokens[0], tokens[1], int(tokens[2]))
 
-    def _prepare_ref(self, ref: AnyStr) -> bytes:
+    def _prepare_ref(self, ref: object) -> bytes:
         # Required for command to separate refs on stdin, as bytes.
         if isinstance(ref, bytes):
             # Assume 40 bytes hexsha - bin-to-ascii for some reason returns bytes, not text.
@@ -1846,7 +1916,7 @@ def _get_persistent_cmd(self, attr_name: str, cmd_name: str, *args: Any, **kwarg
         cmd = cast("Git.AutoInterrupt", cmd)
         return cmd
 
-    def __get_object_header(self, cmd: "Git.AutoInterrupt", ref: AnyStr) -> Tuple[str, str, int]:
+    def __get_object_header(self, cmd: "Git.AutoInterrupt", ref: Union[str, bytes]) -> Tuple[str, str, int]:
         if cmd.stdin and cmd.stdout:
             cmd.stdin.write(self._prepare_ref(ref))
             cmd.stdin.flush()
@@ -1854,7 +1924,7 @@ def __get_object_header(self, cmd: "Git.AutoInterrupt", ref: AnyStr) -> Tuple[st
         else:
             raise ValueError("cmd stdin was empty")
 
-    def get_object_header(self, ref: str) -> Tuple[str, str, int]:
+    def get_object_header(self, ref: Union[str, bytes]) -> Tuple[str, str, int]:
         """Use this method to quickly examine the type and size of the object behind the
         given ref.
 
@@ -1868,7 +1938,7 @@ def get_object_header(self, ref: str) -> Tuple[str, str, int]:
         cmd = self._get_persistent_cmd("cat_file_header", "cat_file", batch_check=True)
         return self.__get_object_header(cmd, ref)
 
-    def get_object_data(self, ref: str) -> Tuple[str, str, int, bytes]:
+    def get_object_data(self, ref: Union[str, bytes]) -> Tuple[str, str, int, bytes]:
         """Similar to :meth:`get_object_header`, but returns object data as well.
 
         :return:
@@ -1882,7 +1952,7 @@ def get_object_data(self, ref: str) -> Tuple[str, str, int, bytes]:
         del stream
         return (hexsha, typename, size, data)
 
-    def stream_object_data(self, ref: str) -> Tuple[str, str, int, "Git.CatFileContentStream"]:
+    def stream_object_data(self, ref: Union[str, bytes]) -> Tuple[str, str, int, "Git.CatFileContentStream"]:
         """Similar to :meth:`get_object_data`, but returns the data as a stream.
 
         :return:
diff --git a/git/index/base.py b/git/index/base.py
index a3c915242..560fc5e2c 100644
--- a/git/index/base.py
+++ b/git/index/base.py
@@ -1235,7 +1235,7 @@ def _read_commit_editmsg(self) -> str:
     def _commit_editmsg_filepath(self) -> str:
         return osp.join(self.repo.common_dir, "COMMIT_EDITMSG")
 
-    def _flush_stdin_and_wait(cls, proc: "Popen[bytes]", ignore_stdout: bool = False) -> bytes:
+    def _flush_stdin_and_wait(self, proc: "Popen[bytes]", ignore_stdout: bool = False) -> bytes:
         stdin_IO = proc.stdin
         if stdin_IO:
             stdin_IO.flush()
diff --git a/git/index/fun.py b/git/index/fun.py
index 886e10de9..45c18ace4 100644
--- a/git/index/fun.py
+++ b/git/index/fun.py
@@ -46,7 +46,7 @@
 from git.types import PathLike
 
 if TYPE_CHECKING:
-    from git.db import GitCmdObjectDB
+    from gitdb.db.base import ObjectDBR, ObjectDBW
     from git.objects.tree import TreeCacheTup
 
     from .base import IndexFile
@@ -412,7 +412,7 @@ def read_cache(
 
 
 def write_tree_from_cache(
-    entries: List[IndexEntry], odb: "GitCmdObjectDB", sl: slice, si: int = 0
+    entries: List[IndexEntry], odb: "ObjectDBW", sl: slice, si: int = 0
 ) -> Tuple[bytes, List["TreeCacheTup"]]:
     R"""Create a tree from the given sorted list of entries and put the respective
     trees into the given object database.
@@ -484,7 +484,7 @@ def _tree_entry_to_baseindexentry(tree_entry: "TreeCacheTup", stage: int) -> Bas
     return BaseIndexEntry((tree_entry[1], tree_entry[0], stage << CE_STAGESHIFT, tree_entry[2]))
 
 
-def aggressive_tree_merge(odb: "GitCmdObjectDB", tree_shas: Sequence[bytes]) -> List[BaseIndexEntry]:
+def aggressive_tree_merge(odb: "ObjectDBR", tree_shas: Sequence[bytes]) -> List[BaseIndexEntry]:
     R"""
     :return:
         List of :class:`~git.index.typ.BaseIndexEntry`\s representing the aggressive
diff --git a/git/index/typ.py b/git/index/typ.py
index 927633a9f..78f7c8ea5 100644
--- a/git/index/typ.py
+++ b/git/index/typ.py
@@ -9,12 +9,13 @@
 from pathlib import Path
 
 from git.objects import Blob
+from git.objects.base import IndexObject
 
 from .util import pack, unpack
 
 # typing ----------------------------------------------------------------------
 
-from typing import NamedTuple, Sequence, TYPE_CHECKING, Tuple, Union, cast
+from typing import NamedTuple, Sequence, TYPE_CHECKING, Tuple, Type, TypeVar, Union, cast
 
 from git.types import PathLike
 
@@ -22,6 +23,7 @@
     from git.repo import Repo
 
 StageType = int
+_T_IndexEntry = TypeVar("_T_IndexEntry", bound="BaseIndexEntry")
 
 # ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
 
@@ -104,15 +106,20 @@ class BaseIndexEntry(BaseIndexEntryHelper):
     """
 
     def __new__(
-        cls,
+        cls: Type[_T_IndexEntry],
         inp_tuple: Union[
             Tuple[int, bytes, int, PathLike],
+            Tuple[int, bytes, int, PathLike, bytes, bytes, int, int, int, int, int],
             Tuple[int, bytes, int, PathLike, bytes, bytes, int, int, int, int, int, int],
         ],
-    ) -> "BaseIndexEntry":
+    ) -> _T_IndexEntry:
         """Override ``__new__`` to allow construction from a tuple for backwards
         compatibility."""
-        return super().__new__(cls, *inp_tuple)
+        if len(inp_tuple) == 4:
+            return BaseIndexEntryHelper.__new__(cls, *inp_tuple)
+        if len(inp_tuple) == 11:
+            return BaseIndexEntryHelper.__new__(cls, *inp_tuple)
+        return BaseIndexEntryHelper.__new__(cls, *inp_tuple)
 
     def __str__(self) -> str:
         return "%o %s %i\t%s" % (self.mode, self.hexsha, self.stage, self.path)
@@ -148,7 +155,7 @@ def intent_to_add(self) -> bool:
         return (self.extended_flags & CE_EXT_INTENT_TO_ADD) > 0
 
     @classmethod
-    def from_blob(cls, blob: Blob, stage: int = 0) -> "BaseIndexEntry":
+    def from_blob(cls, blob: IndexObject, stage: int = 0) -> "BaseIndexEntry":
         """:return: Fully equipped BaseIndexEntry at the given stage"""
         return cls((blob.mode, blob.binsha, stage << CE_STAGESHIFT, blob.path))
 
@@ -192,10 +199,10 @@ def from_base(cls, base: "BaseIndexEntry") -> "IndexEntry":
             Instance of type :class:`BaseIndexEntry`.
         """
         time = pack(">LL", 0, 0)
-        return IndexEntry((base.mode, base.binsha, base.flags, base.path, time, time, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0))  # type: ignore[arg-type]
+        return IndexEntry((base.mode, base.binsha, base.flags, base.path, time, time, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0))
 
     @classmethod
-    def from_blob(cls, blob: Blob, stage: int = 0) -> "IndexEntry":
+    def from_blob(cls, blob: IndexObject, stage: int = 0) -> "IndexEntry":
         """:return: Minimal entry resembling the given blob object"""
         time = pack(">LL", 0, 0)
         return IndexEntry(
@@ -211,5 +218,5 @@ def from_blob(cls, blob: Blob, stage: int = 0) -> "IndexEntry":
                 0,
                 0,
                 blob.size,
-            )  # type: ignore[arg-type]
+            )
         )
diff --git a/git/objects/base.py b/git/objects/base.py
index faf600c6b..1188ec0c9 100644
--- a/git/objects/base.py
+++ b/git/objects/base.py
@@ -18,7 +18,7 @@
 
 from typing import Any, TYPE_CHECKING, Union
 
-from git.types import AnyGitObject, GitObjectTypeString, PathLike
+from git.types import AnyGitObject, GitObjectTypeString, PathLike, SupportsWrite
 
 if TYPE_CHECKING:
     from gitdb.base import OStream
@@ -200,7 +200,7 @@ def data_stream(self) -> "OStream":
         """
         return self.repo.odb.stream(self.binsha)
 
-    def stream_data(self, ostream: "OStream") -> "Object":
+    def stream_data(self, ostream: SupportsWrite[bytes]) -> "Object":
         """Write our data directly to the given output stream.
 
         :param ostream:
diff --git a/git/objects/commit.py b/git/objects/commit.py
index 45843eac2..0348d3299 100644
--- a/git/objects/commit.py
+++ b/git/objects/commit.py
@@ -502,7 +502,7 @@ def _interpret_trailers(
     ) -> str:
         message_bytes = message if isinstance(message, bytes) else message.encode(encoding, errors="strict")
         cmd = [repo.git.GIT_PYTHON_GIT_EXECUTABLE, "interpret-trailers", *trailer_args]
-        proc: Git.AutoInterrupt = repo.git.execute(  # type: ignore[call-overload]
+        proc: Git.AutoInterrupt = repo.git.execute(
             cmd,
             as_process=True,
             istream=PIPE,
diff --git a/git/objects/fun.py b/git/objects/fun.py
index ad5fbd59b..7ef229990 100644
--- a/git/objects/fun.py
+++ b/git/objects/fun.py
@@ -30,7 +30,7 @@
 if TYPE_CHECKING:
     from _typeshed import ReadableBuffer
 
-    from git import GitCmdObjectDB
+    from gitdb.db.base import ObjectDBR
 
 EntryTup = Tuple[bytes, int, str]  # Same as TreeCacheTup in tree.py.
 EntryTupOrNone = Union[EntryTup, None]
@@ -166,7 +166,7 @@ def _to_full_path(item: EntryTupOrNone, path_prefix: str) -> EntryTupOrNone:
 
 
 def traverse_trees_recursive(
-    odb: "GitCmdObjectDB", tree_shas: Sequence[Union[bytes, None]], path_prefix: str
+    odb: "ObjectDBR", tree_shas: Sequence[Union[bytes, None]], path_prefix: str
 ) -> List[Tuple[EntryTupOrNone, ...]]:
     """
     :return:
@@ -253,7 +253,7 @@ def traverse_trees_recursive(
     return out
 
 
-def traverse_tree_recursive(odb: "GitCmdObjectDB", tree_sha: bytes, path_prefix: str) -> List[EntryTup]:
+def traverse_tree_recursive(odb: "ObjectDBR", tree_sha: bytes, path_prefix: str) -> List[EntryTup]:
     """
     :return:
         List of entries of the tree pointed to by the binary `tree_sha`.
diff --git a/git/objects/submodule/base.py b/git/objects/submodule/base.py
index 8308e4459..ba281c499 100644
--- a/git/objects/submodule/base.py
+++ b/git/objects/submodule/base.py
@@ -14,7 +14,7 @@
 import stat
 import sys
 import uuid
-import urllib
+import urllib.parse
 
 import git
 from git.cmd import Git
@@ -1769,7 +1769,7 @@ def iter_items(
             # END handle critical error
 
             # Make sure we are looking at a submodule object.
-            if type(sm) is not git.objects.submodule.base.Submodule:
+            if type(sm) is not Submodule:
                 continue
 
             # Fill in remaining info - saves time as it doesn't have to be parsed again.
diff --git a/git/objects/tag.py b/git/objects/tag.py
index 88671d316..18b4a9ca4 100644
--- a/git/objects/tag.py
+++ b/git/objects/tag.py
@@ -23,6 +23,8 @@
 
 from typing import List, TYPE_CHECKING, Union
 
+from git.types import AnyGitObject
+
 if sys.version_info >= (3, 8):
     from typing import Literal
 else:
@@ -61,7 +63,7 @@ def __init__(
         self,
         repo: "Repo",
         binsha: bytes,
-        object: Union[None, base.Object] = None,
+        object: Union[None, AnyGitObject] = None,
         tag: Union[None, str] = None,
         tagger: Union[None, Actor] = None,
         tagged_date: Union[int, None] = None,
diff --git a/git/refs/reference.py b/git/refs/reference.py
index 0c4327225..7d6c62cf5 100644
--- a/git/refs/reference.py
+++ b/git/refs/reference.py
@@ -26,7 +26,7 @@ def require_remote_ref_path(func: Callable[..., _T]) -> Callable[..., _T]:
     """A decorator raising :exc:`ValueError` if we are not a valid remote, based on the
     path."""
 
-    def wrapper(self: T_References, *args: Any) -> _T:
+    def wrapper(self: SymbolicReference, *args: Any) -> _T:
         if not self.is_remote():
             raise ValueError("ref path does not point to a remote reference: %s" % self.path)
         return func(self, *args)
diff --git a/git/remote.py b/git/remote.py
index e2d5cbc1d..2ddf11af0 100644
--- a/git/remote.py
+++ b/git/remote.py
@@ -38,6 +38,7 @@
     Sequence,
     TYPE_CHECKING,
     Type,
+    TypeVar,
     Union,
     cast,
     overload,
@@ -50,6 +51,8 @@
     from git.objects.submodule.base import UpdateProgress
     from git.repo.base import Repo
 
+_T_RemoteName = TypeVar("_T_RemoteName", bound=Union[str, "Remote"])
+
 flagKeyLiteral = Literal[" ", "!", "+", "-", "*", "=", "t", "?"]
 
 # -------------------------------------------------------------
@@ -820,19 +823,20 @@ def add(cls, repo: "Repo", name: str, url: str, **kwargs: Any) -> "Remote":
         return cls.create(repo, name, url, **kwargs)
 
     @classmethod
-    def remove(cls, repo: "Repo", name: str) -> str:
+    def remove(cls, repo: "Repo", name: _T_RemoteName) -> _T_RemoteName:
         """Remove the remote with the given name.
 
         :return:
             The passed remote name to remove
         """
         repo.git.remote("rm", name)
-        if isinstance(name, cls):
-            name._clear_cache()
+        remote = name
+        if isinstance(remote, cls):
+            remote._clear_cache()
         return name
 
     @classmethod
-    def rm(cls, repo: "Repo", name: str) -> str:
+    def rm(cls, repo: "Repo", name: _T_RemoteName) -> _T_RemoteName:
         """Alias of remove.
         Remove the remote with the given name.
 
@@ -901,7 +905,7 @@ def _get_fetch_info_from_stderr(
             kill_after_timeout=kill_after_timeout,
         )
 
-        stderr_text = progress.error_lines and "\n".join(progress.error_lines) or ""
+        stderr_text = "\n".join(progress.error_lines)
         proc.wait(stderr=stderr_text)
         if stderr_text:
             _logger.warning("Error lines received while fetching: %s", stderr_text)
@@ -973,7 +977,7 @@ def stdout_handler(line: str) -> None:
             decode_streams=False,
             kill_after_timeout=kill_after_timeout,
         )
-        stderr_text = progress.error_lines and "\n".join(progress.error_lines) or ""
+        stderr_text = "\n".join(progress.error_lines)
         try:
             proc.wait(stderr=stderr_text)
         except Exception as e:
diff --git a/git/repo/base.py b/git/repo/base.py
index f326266d6..29922e118 100644
--- a/git/repo/base.py
+++ b/git/repo/base.py
@@ -18,6 +18,7 @@
 import warnings
 
 import gitdb
+import gitdb.util
 from gitdb.db.loose import LooseObjectDB
 from gitdb.exc import BadObject
 
@@ -33,7 +34,7 @@
 from git.index import IndexFile
 from git.objects import Submodule, RootModule, Commit
 from git.refs import HEAD, Head, Reference, TagReference
-from git.remote import Remote, add_progress, to_progress_instance
+from git.remote import Remote, _T_RemoteName, add_progress, to_progress_instance
 from git.util import (
     Actor,
     cygpath,
@@ -95,7 +96,7 @@
 
 
 class BlameEntry(NamedTuple):
-    commit: Dict[str, Commit]
+    commit: Commit
     linenos: range
     orig_path: Optional[str]
     orig_linenos: range
@@ -396,7 +397,7 @@ def __init__(
             self._working_tree_dir = None
         # END working dir handling
 
-        self.working_dir: PathLike = self._working_tree_dir or self.common_dir
+        self.working_dir = self._working_tree_dir or self.common_dir
         self.git = self.GitCommandWrapperType(self.working_dir)
         if common_dir_env is not None:
             self.git.update_environment(GIT_DIR=os.fspath(self.git_dir), GIT_COMMON_DIR=os.fspath(self.common_dir))
@@ -718,7 +719,7 @@ def create_remote(self, name: str, url: str, **kwargs: Any) -> Remote:
         """
         return Remote.create(self, name, url, **kwargs)
 
-    def delete_remote(self, remote: "Remote") -> str:
+    def delete_remote(self, remote: _T_RemoteName) -> _T_RemoteName:
         """Delete the given remote."""
         return Remote.remove(self, remote)
 
@@ -1504,7 +1505,7 @@ def _clone(
         git: "Git",
         url: PathLike,
         path: PathLike,
-        odb_default_type: Type[GitCmdObjectDB],
+        odb_default_type: Type[LooseObjectDB],
         progress: Union["RemoteProgress", "UpdateProgress", Callable[..., "RemoteProgress"], None] = None,
         multi_options: Optional[List[str]] = None,
         allow_unsafe_protocols: bool = False,
@@ -1711,7 +1712,7 @@ def clone_from(
     def archive(
         self,
         ostream: Union[TextIO, BinaryIO],
-        treeish: Optional[str] = None,
+        treeish: Union[str, Commit, None] = None,
         prefix: Optional[str] = None,
         allow_unsafe_options: bool = False,
         allow_unsafe_protocols: bool = False,
diff --git a/git/repo/fun.py b/git/repo/fun.py
index eb0d8075a..a565054bc 100644
--- a/git/repo/fun.py
+++ b/git/repo/fun.py
@@ -40,11 +40,10 @@
 from git.types import AnyGitObject, Literal, PathLike
 
 if TYPE_CHECKING:
-    from git.db import GitCmdObjectDB
+    from gitdb.db import CompoundDB, LooseObjectDB
     from git.objects import Commit
     from git.refs.reference import Reference
     from git.refs.log import RefLog, RefLogEntry
-    from git.refs.tag import Tag
 
     from .base import Repo
 
@@ -158,7 +157,7 @@ def find_submodule_git_dir(d: PathLike) -> Optional[PathLike]:
     return path if is_git_dir(path) else None
 
 
-def short_to_long(odb: "GitCmdObjectDB", hexsha: str) -> Optional[bytes]:
+def short_to_long(odb: Union["CompoundDB", "LooseObjectDB"], hexsha: str) -> Optional[bytes]:
     """
     :return:
         Long hexadecimal sha1 from the given less than 40 byte hexsha, or ``None`` if no
@@ -261,7 +260,7 @@ def name_to_object(repo: "Repo", name: str, return_ref: bool = False) -> Union[A
     return Object.new_from_sha(repo, hex_to_bin(hexsha))
 
 
-def deref_tag(tag: "Tag") -> AnyGitObject:
+def deref_tag(tag: AnyGitObject) -> AnyGitObject:
     """Recursively dereference a tag and return the resulting object."""
     while True:
         try:
@@ -272,7 +271,7 @@ def deref_tag(tag: "Tag") -> AnyGitObject:
     return tag
 
 
-def to_commit(obj: Object) -> "Commit":
+def to_commit(obj: AnyGitObject) -> "Commit":
     """Convert the given object to a commit if possible and return it."""
     if obj.type == "tag":
         obj = deref_tag(obj)
@@ -521,7 +520,7 @@ def _find_commit_by_message(
     if rev is None:
         commits = _all_ref_commits(repo)
     else:
-        commits = _reachable_commits([to_commit(cast(Object, rev))])
+        commits = _reachable_commits([to_commit(rev)])
     # END handle starting point
 
     for commit in commits:
@@ -541,7 +540,7 @@ def _all_ref_commits(repo: "Repo") -> Iterator["Commit"]:
     starts = []
     for ref in repo.references:
         try:
-            starts.append(to_commit(cast(Object, ref.object)))
+            starts.append(to_commit(ref.object))
         except (BadName, ValueError):
             pass
         # END skip refs that do not point to commits
@@ -589,7 +588,7 @@ def _index_lookup(repo: "Repo", spec: str) -> AnyGitObject:
 
 def _tree_lookup(obj: AnyGitObject, path: str) -> AnyGitObject:
     if obj.type != "tree":
-        obj = to_commit(cast(Object, obj)).tree
+        obj = to_commit(obj).tree
     # END get tree
     if not path:
         return obj
@@ -604,9 +603,9 @@ def _peel(obj: AnyGitObject, output_type: str, repo: "Repo", rev: str) -> AnyGit
     if output_type == "object":
         return obj
     if output_type == "commit":
-        return to_commit(cast(Object, obj))
+        return to_commit(obj)
     if output_type == "tree":
-        return to_commit(cast(Object, obj)).tree if obj.type != "tree" else obj
+        return to_commit(obj).tree if obj.type != "tree" else obj
     if output_type == "blob":
         obj = deref_tag(obj) if obj.type == "tag" else obj
         if obj.type == output_type:
diff --git a/git/types.py b/git/types.py
index 100fff43f..31d40bf3b 100644
--- a/git/types.py
+++ b/git/types.py
@@ -48,6 +48,22 @@
 _T = TypeVar("_T")
 """Type variable used internally in GitPython."""
 
+_T_Stream_co = TypeVar("_T_Stream_co", str, bytes, covariant=True)
+_T_Stream_contra = TypeVar("_T_Stream_contra", str, bytes, contravariant=True)
+
+
+class SupportsRead(Protocol[_T_Stream_co]):
+    """A stream supporting reads, without requiring the full IO interface."""
+
+    def read(self, __size: int = -1) -> _T_Stream_co: ...
+
+
+class SupportsWrite(Protocol[_T_Stream_contra]):
+    """A stream supporting writes, including writers that return None."""
+
+    def write(self, __data: _T_Stream_contra) -> object: ...
+
+
 AnyGitObject = Union["Commit", "Tree", "TagObject", "Blob"]
 """Union of the :class:`~git.objects.base.Object`-based types that represent actual git
 object types.
diff --git a/git/util.py b/git/util.py
index a80e667c7..f72e3d7c1 100644
--- a/git/util.py
+++ b/git/util.py
@@ -68,7 +68,6 @@
 from typing import (
     Any,
     AnyStr,
-    BinaryIO,
     Callable,
     Dict,
     Generator,
@@ -101,6 +100,8 @@
     PathLike,
     Protocol,
     SupportsIndex,
+    SupportsRead,
+    SupportsWrite,
     Total_TD,
     runtime_checkable,
 )
@@ -253,7 +254,7 @@ def rmfile(path: PathLike) -> None:
         os.remove(path)
 
 
-def stream_copy(source: BinaryIO, destination: BinaryIO, chunk_size: int = 512 * 1024) -> int:
+def stream_copy(source: SupportsRead[AnyStr], destination: SupportsWrite[AnyStr], chunk_size: int = 512 * 1024) -> int:
     """Copy all data from the `source` stream into the `destination` stream in chunks
     of size `chunk_size`.
 
diff --git a/pyproject.toml b/pyproject.toml
index b7c437bf3..fbcde3611 100644
--- a/pyproject.toml
+++ b/pyproject.toml
@@ -19,7 +19,7 @@ testpaths = "test"  # Space separated list of paths from root e.g test tests doc
 # filterwarnings ignore::WarningType  # ignores those warnings
 
 [tool.mypy]
-files = ["git/", "test/deprecation/"]
+files = ["git/", "test/deprecation/", "test/test_typing.py"]
 disallow_untyped_defs = true
 no_implicit_optional = true
 warn_redundant_casts = true
@@ -40,6 +40,8 @@ pythonVersion = "3.7"
 include = [
     "git",
     "test/deprecation",
+    "test/test_typing.py",
+    "test/test_git.py",
 ]
 extraPaths = [
     "gitdb",
diff --git a/test-requirements.txt b/test-requirements.txt
index e2443825c..0fabac809 100644
--- a/test-requirements.txt
+++ b/test-requirements.txt
@@ -1,7 +1,7 @@
 coverage[toml]
 basedpyright==1.39.9 ; python_version >= "3.9" and sys_platform != "cygwin"
 ddt >= 1.1.1, != 1.4.3
-mock ; python_version < "3.8"
+mock  # Also needed to typecheck the Python 3.7 import branches.
 mypy==1.18.2 ; python_version >= "3.9" # pin mypy version to avoid new errors
 pre-commit
 pytest >= 7.3.1
diff --git a/test/test_git.py b/test/test_git.py
index a88d980fb..14fc7dfc3 100644
--- a/test/test_git.py
+++ b/test/test_git.py
@@ -14,6 +14,7 @@
 import pickle
 import re
 import shutil
+import signal
 import subprocess
 import sys
 import tempfile
@@ -136,24 +137,24 @@ def test_it_raises_errors(self):
         self.assertRaises(GitCommandError, self.git.this_does_not_exist)
 
     def test_it_transforms_kwargs_into_git_command_arguments(self):
-        self.assertEqual(["-s"], self.git.transform_kwargs(**{"s": True}))
-        self.assertEqual(["-s", "5"], self.git.transform_kwargs(**{"s": 5}))
-        self.assertEqual([], self.git.transform_kwargs(**{"s": None}))
+        self.assertEqual(["-s"], self.git.transform_kwargs(s=True))
+        self.assertEqual(["-s", "5"], self.git.transform_kwargs(s=5))
+        self.assertEqual([], self.git.transform_kwargs(s=None))
 
-        self.assertEqual(["--max-count"], self.git.transform_kwargs(**{"max_count": True}))
-        self.assertEqual(["--max-count=5"], self.git.transform_kwargs(**{"max_count": 5}))
-        self.assertEqual(["--max-count=0"], self.git.transform_kwargs(**{"max_count": 0}))
-        self.assertEqual([], self.git.transform_kwargs(**{"max_count": None}))
+        self.assertEqual(["--max-count"], self.git.transform_kwargs(max_count=True))
+        self.assertEqual(["--max-count=5"], self.git.transform_kwargs(max_count=5))
+        self.assertEqual(["--max-count=0"], self.git.transform_kwargs(max_count=0))
+        self.assertEqual([], self.git.transform_kwargs(max_count=None))
 
         # Multiple args are supported by using lists/tuples.
         self.assertEqual(
             ["-L", "1-3", "-L", "12-18"],
-            self.git.transform_kwargs(**{"L": ("1-3", "12-18")}),
+            self.git.transform_kwargs(L=("1-3", "12-18")),
         )
-        self.assertEqual(["-C", "-C"], self.git.transform_kwargs(**{"C": [True, True, None, False]}))
+        self.assertEqual(["-C", "-C"], self.git.transform_kwargs(C=[True, True, None, False]))
 
         # Order is undefined.
-        res = self.git.transform_kwargs(**{"s": True, "t": True})
+        res = self.git.transform_kwargs(s=True, t=True)
         self.assertEqual({"-s", "-t"}, set(res))
 
     def test_check_unsafe_options_normalizes_kwargs(self):
@@ -220,7 +221,9 @@ def test_option_candidates_include_falsey_non_boolean_values(self):
         candidates = Git._option_candidates(kwargs=kwargs)
 
         self.assertEqual(candidates, ["--pathspec-from-file"])
-        self.assertEqual(self.git.transform_kwargs(**kwargs), ["--pathspec-from-file=0"])
+        self.assertEqual(
+            self.git.transform_kwargs(split_single_char_options=True, **kwargs), ["--pathspec-from-file=0"]
+        )
         with self.assertRaises(UnsafeOptionError):
             Git.check_unsafe_options(
                 options=candidates,
@@ -332,6 +335,63 @@ def test_it_honors_kill_after_timeout_with_output_stream(self):
         self.assertEqual(output_stream.getvalue(), b"started\n")
         self.assertIn("Timeout: the command", stderr)
 
+    @skipUnless(
+        sys.platform not in ("win32", "cygwin"),
+        "child process lookup requires pgrep or POSIX ps",
+    )
+    @ddt.data(False, True)
+    def test_timeout_kills_direct_child(self, without_pgrep):
+        with tempfile.TemporaryDirectory() as directory:
+            marker = Path(directory, "child-survived")
+            child_code = (
+                "import pathlib, sys, time; time.sleep(2); "
+                "pathlib.Path(sys.argv[1]).write_text('survived', encoding='utf-8')"
+            )
+            parent_code = (
+                "import subprocess, sys, time; "
+                "subprocess.Popen([sys.executable, '-c', sys.argv[1], sys.argv[2]]); "
+                "time.sleep(30)"
+            )
+            popen = cmd.Popen
+
+            def portable_popen(args, **kwargs):
+                if without_pgrep and args[0] == "pgrep":
+                    raise FileNotFoundError("pgrep is not installed")
+                return popen(args, **kwargs)
+
+            with mock.patch.object(cmd, "Popen", side_effect=portable_popen):
+                status, _, stderr = self.git.execute(
+                    [sys.executable, "-c", parent_code, child_code, str(marker)],
+                    kill_after_timeout=1,
+                    with_exceptions=False,
+                    with_extended_output=True,
+                )
+
+            self.assertNotEqual(status, 0)
+            self.assertIn("Timeout: the command", stderr)
+            self.assertFalse(marker.exists(), "the direct child survived the timeout")
+
+    @skipUnless(sys.platform != "win32", "kill_after_timeout is not supported on Windows")
+    def test_timeout_ps_fallback_selects_only_direct_children(self):
+        process = mock.MagicMock()
+        process.pid = 1234
+        process.communicate.return_value = (b"", b"")
+        process.returncode = -signal.SIGKILL
+        ps = mock.MagicMock()
+        ps.__enter__.return_value = ps
+        ps.stdout = io.BytesIO(b"PID PPID\n 321 1\n 5678 1234\n 9012 5678\n\n")
+
+        with contextlib.ExitStack() as stack:
+            stack.enter_context(mock.patch.object(cmd, "safer_popen", return_value=process))
+            stack.enter_context(mock.patch.object(cmd, "Popen", side_effect=[FileNotFoundError, ps]))
+            kill = stack.enter_context(mock.patch.object(cmd.os, "kill"))
+            timer = stack.enter_context(mock.patch.object(cmd.threading, "Timer"))
+            # Run the timeout callback synchronously, with no real processes or signals.
+            timer.return_value.start.side_effect = lambda: timer.call_args.args[1](1234)
+            self.git.execute(["git", "version"], kill_after_timeout=1, with_exceptions=False)
+
+        self.assertEqual(kill.call_args_list, [mock.call(1234, signal.SIGKILL), mock.call(5678, signal.SIGKILL)])
+
     def test_it_executes_git_without_stdout_redirect(self):
         returncode, stdout, stderr = self.git.execute(
             ["git", "version"],
@@ -576,6 +636,7 @@ def test_initial_refresh_from_bad_git_path_env_warn(self, case):
             with mock.patch.dict(os.environ, env_vars):
                 with self.assertLogs(cmd.__name__, logging.CRITICAL) as ctx:
                     refresh()
+                assert ctx is not None
                 self.assertEqual(len(ctx.records), 1)
                 message = ctx.records[0].getMessage()
                 self.assertRegex(message, r"\ABad git executable.\n")
@@ -695,6 +756,7 @@ def test_refresh_with_good_absolute_git_path_arg(self):
     def test_refresh_with_good_relative_git_path_arg(self):
         """Good relative path arg is resolved to absolute path and set."""
         absolute_path = shutil.which("git")
+        assert absolute_path is not None
         dirname, basename = osp.split(absolute_path)
 
         with cwd(dirname):
diff --git a/test/test_typing.py b/test/test_typing.py
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..101c05520
--- /dev/null
+++ b/test/test_typing.py
@@ -0,0 +1,91 @@
+# This module is part of GitPython and is released under the
+# 3-Clause BSD License: https://opensource.org/license/bsd-3-clause/
+
+"""Runtime and static checks for public APIs with related input/output types."""
+
+from io import BytesIO, StringIO
+import subprocess
+import sys
+from typing import List, Tuple, TYPE_CHECKING
+
+import pytest
+
+from git import Git
+from git.exc import GitCommandError
+from git.index.typ import BaseIndexEntry, IndexEntry
+from git.util import stream_copy
+
+
+def test_index_entry_constructor_shapes() -> None:
+    class DerivedEntry(IndexEntry):
+        pass
+
+    short = (0o100644, b"\0" * 20, 0, "file")
+    full = short + (b"\0" * 8, b"\0" * 8, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5)
+    entries: List[IndexEntry] = [IndexEntry(short), IndexEntry(full), IndexEntry(full + (0x4000,))]
+    derived: DerivedEntry = DerivedEntry(short)
+
+    assert all(type(entry) is IndexEntry for entry in entries)
+    assert [entry.size for entry in entries] == [0, 5, 5]
+    assert [entry.skip_worktree for entry in entries] == [False, False, True]
+    assert type(derived) is DerivedEntry
+    assert IndexEntry.from_base(BaseIndexEntry(short)) == entries[0]
+
+
+def test_stream_copy_minimal_writer() -> None:
+    class Writer:
+        def __init__(self) -> None:
+            self.data = b""
+
+        def write(self, data: bytes) -> None:
+            self.data += data
+
+    writer = Writer()
+    assert stream_copy(BytesIO(b"payload"), writer, chunk_size=3) == 7
+    assert writer.data == b"payload"
+    text = StringIO()
+    assert stream_copy(StringIO("payload"), text, chunk_size=3) == 7
+    assert text.getvalue() == "payload"
+
+
+def test_process_wait_with_no_previous_stderr() -> None:
+    process = Git().execute(
+        [sys.executable, "-c", "import sys; sys.stderr.write('failure'); sys.exit(1)"],
+        as_process=True,
+        istream=subprocess.DEVNULL,
+        shell=False,
+    )
+    with pytest.raises(GitCommandError, match="failure"):
+        process.wait(stderr=None)
+
+
+def test_execute_output_types() -> None:
+    git = Git()
+    command = [sys.executable, "-c", "print('payload', end='')"]
+    text: str = git.execute(command, with_exceptions=False, shell=False)
+    binary: bytes = git.execute(command, stdout_as_string=False, shell=False)
+    extended_text: Tuple[int, str, str] = git.execute(command, with_extended_output=True, shell=False)
+    extended_binary: Tuple[int, bytes, str] = git.execute(
+        command, with_extended_output=True, stdout_as_string=False, shell=False
+    )
+    assert text == "payload"
+    assert binary == b"payload"
+    assert extended_text == (0, text, "")
+    assert extended_binary == (0, binary, "")
+
+
+if TYPE_CHECKING:
+    from git import Remote, Repo
+    from git.repo.base import BlameEntry
+    from git.objects import Commit, Submodule
+
+    repo = Repo()
+    remote = Remote(repo, "origin")
+    removed_names: List[str] = [Remote.remove(repo, "origin"), Remote.rm(repo, "origin"), repo.delete_remote("origin")]
+    removed_remotes: List[Remote] = [Remote.remove(repo, remote), Remote.rm(repo, remote), repo.delete_remote(remote)]
+    blame = BlameEntry(repo.head.commit, range(1), "file", range(1))
+    commit: Commit = blame.commit
+    submodule_entry: IndexEntry = IndexEntry.from_blob(Submodule(repo, b"\0" * 20))
+    Git().get_object_header(b"HEAD")
+    Git().get_object_data(b"HEAD")
+    Git().stream_object_data(b"HEAD")